"A River Knows No Boundaries" (Ashton 2002, 240)
Conflict and natural resources are connected; the struggle for resource control has underpinned many modern and ancient wars. Water is a valuable natural resource, dubbed ‘blue gold’, and is necessary for sustaining human life (Alao 2007; Ashton 2002a,b; Treszkai 2018). Greater demand for water increases the potential for water-related conflict, which is conflict directed at acquiring access to water (Ashton 2000). Transboundary water resources are particularly vulnerable to disagreement, because water resources are distributed across neighbouring countries meaning, the consequences of activities in upstream riparian states flow downstream (Ashton 2002a, b, 2000). Figure 1 highlights locations of potential transboundary conflicts across the African continent.
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| Figure 1: A Map of Africa showing river basins and the locations of actual/potential water-related conflicts (Ashton 2002a, 237). |
The proliferation of competing water uses has placed stress upon Africa’s finite water sources, complicating water’s relationship between politics and conflict. Competing water uses include agricultural, domestic, and industrial use. Africa’s water sources demand careful management, because fear of water scarcity can generate an emotional response, potentially leading to internal or inter-state conflict (Gleick 1998; Turton 2000b).
Regions vulnerable to water-related conflicts are regions where geographic factors complicate water politics. For example, northern and southern Africa experience less annual rainfall and high rates of evapotranspiration which contribute to extended periods of drought, placing strain on water resources (Alao 2007). Reduced or unreliable rainfall risks the recharge ability of freshwater resources, especially rivers dependent on surface runoff.
What Causes Conflict?
One explanation for the link between water and conflict is ‘Structural Inequality Discourse’ theory, which explains that unequal water provision, and access, is a catalyst for water-related conflict (Turton 2000a). This is important to understand because of its impact on increasing tensions within water basins, and the theory is underlain by two causes (Kaniaru 2015; Van Wyk 1998; Turton 2010):
- Climate Change: Climate change increases the inter-annual variability of water sources, which places increased pressure on existing water resources, especially in regions dependent on surface runoff for water provision.
- Rapid Population Growth: Africa is experiencing rapid population growth, which increases fears surrounding water scarcity. Larger populations increase the pressure on water resources (Alao 2007), and rapid urbanisation, globalisation and industrialisation further raise demand for water, and reduce water quality (Ashton 2002; Biswas 1993; Gleick 1998; Ashton and Haasbroek 2002).
Okavango River:
Water and Conflict in Africa will be explored through the Okavango River, which runs from southern Angola, through Namibia, to Botswana and the Okavango Delta (Edwards et al 2015). It is the 4th largest river basin in southern Africa, covering 700,000km2 (Kaniaru 2015; Mogomotsi et al 2020), and houses a diverse range of flora and fauna (Baumberg et al 2014).
Each riparian state has different demands of the Okavango, and the downstream states (Namibia and Botswana) are considered water scarce under Falkenmark’s definition (Alao 2007). Furthermore, Botswana receives 94% of its freshwater from neighbouring countries, creating a tense relationship between riparian states, which has led to complex discussions about the Okavango’s management, which will be explored in more depth in an upcoming blog post (Ashton 2002a; Ashton 2000; SARDC 1996).
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| Figure 3: The Okavango River Basin (OSU 2022 (Available at: https://transboundarywaters.science.oregonstate.edu/content/okavango-river-basin)) |
Bibliography: *
Ashton, P.J. (2000) ‘Southern African water conflicts: are they inevitable or preventable?’, in Water Wars: Enduring Myth or Impending Reality, H, Solomon. and A.R. Turton. (eds.) Durban, South Africa: Africa Dialogue Monograph Series No. 2. The African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD), 62-105.
Ashton, P.J. and B, Haasbroek. (2002b). ‘Water demand management and social adaptive capacity: A South African case study. In: Hydropolitics in the Developing World: A Southern African Perspective’, in A.R, Turton. and R, Henwood. (eds.), Pretoria, South Africa: African Water Issues Research Unit (AWIRU) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI).
SARDC. (1996) Water in Southern Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe: Southern African Research and Documentation Centre.
Turton, A. (2000a) ‘Water Wars in Southern Africa: Challenging Conventional Wisdom’, in Water Wars: Enduring Myth or Impending Reality, H, Solomon and A, Turton. (Eds.) Pretoria, South Africa: Accord 35–64.
Amazing use of references! I also liked the inclusion of the 'Structural Inequality Discourse' theory. In your upcoming blogs, I think it would be great to look deeper into how this plays out across different African nations.
ReplyDeleteThank you! I am hoping to build on potential conflict causes in a future post, and will examine how they apply to different African states and their water politics.
DeleteAmazing introductory post! I loved how cohesive the entire post was, with clear use of referencing, and subheadings to divide up the points. I especially loved figure 1 as it was a unique way of highlighting potential spaces for transboundary conflict. In regards to your choice of case study, I am curious to know why you have chosen the Okavango River in exploring water and conflict in Africa? Excited to see the next posts:)
ReplyDeleteThanks Pragya! The Okavango river was interesting due to some of the disputes between Angola, Namibia and Botswana (which will be explored in more detail in a future post), and there were interesting basin politics because of the countries' participation in the SADC too.
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ReplyDeleteHi Ciara! This is a succinct and well-structured introduction into exploring the interplay of politics and water in generating conflict. I particularly like how you covered the physical and human causal factors in 'What causes conflict', highlighting the multi-disciplinary nature of the topic! Looking forward to learning more about the Okavango River and seeing how you develop your personal voice within your blog!
ReplyDeleteHi Abbie, Thank you so much!
DeleteHi Ciara! This was a great introduction in the factors that affect the hydropolitics of Africa in general and in the specific case study of the Okavango River Basin. However, I was wondering if your going to explore the complexities and trends of cooperation of water, especially in the Okavango where cooperation has successfully occurred?
ReplyDeleteHi Jethro, thanks so much for your comment. In a future post, I will look in more detail at policies and ratified agreements between the riparian states showing an example of (semi) successful cooperation within the Okavango River Basin. Hopefully, this will incorporate the complexities of cooperation.
DeleteHi Ciara, very insightful blog post! Other than climate change and population growth, do you think power relations may also play an important role in causing conflict?
ReplyDeleteHi Bejna, thanks! Definitely, particularly when there are uneven power relations among riparian states. This is the case in the Okavango Basin too, where downstream states are in a vulnerable position due to weaker power relations.
DeleteHi Ciara, this is a very good blog. Do you see any potential solutions that could address the structural inequalities in water provision?
ReplyDeleteThank you! I think overcoming structural inequalities in water provision is a substantial challenge, with a long-term solution necessary. I think that legislation is important (eg OKACOM), but this needs to be paired with economic investment in rural communities. The idea of 'virtual water' (See Barnaby 2009; Allan 2000, 2005) is crucial for addressing short-term issues around water provision, but structural inequalities need to be addressed through governmental and local partnerships. I hope this goes some way in answering your question!
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