Tracing Flows of Discontent in the Okavango Basin
My third blog post applies the principles covered in the previous posts to an analysis of the Okavango.
Namibia is the driest country in Africa (Meissner 2000), and is one of the most arid countries in the world (Day 1997; Ashley et al 1995; Buenfil 2000), meaning that humans and ecosystems increasingly need to compete for water supplies (McCarthy and Ellery 1998; Ashton and Neal 2003; Mbaiwa 2004). During a period of intense drought in two consecutive seasons between 1994 and 1996, a pipeline was proposed to provide the city of Windhoek with sufficient water (Alao 2007; Day 1997).
The Proposal:
The proposed pipeline would abstract water from the Okavango at Rundu, linking to the Eastern National Water Carrier in Grootfontein (Ashton and Manley 1999; Mbaiwa 2004). For Namibia, the pipeline represented insurance against future droughts, as it could extract 17.5 million m3/year from the Okavango. The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) undertook a feasibility study for the pipeline but failed to consult the other riparian states and OKACOM about their plans, fostering discontent (Taylor and Bethune 1999).
Figure 1 outlines Namibia’s proposal:
Figure 1: A Map of the ENWC in Namibia, with the proposed pipeline from Rundu to Grootfontein (Source: Ashton 2000, Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.2989/160859100780177776?needAccess=true).
Immediately, controversy surrounded the pipeline.
Whilst Namibia would profit from the benefits of the pipeline, Botswana felt they would endure the potential environmental and ecological costs, risking the delicate habitats and ecosystems within the protected wetlands of the Okavango Delta (West et al 2015; Kaniaru 2015). Abstraction has a high ecological impact, and reduced flows to the Delta have the potential to dry the wetlands, endangering rare flora and fauna species (Ashton 2000a; Mogomotsi et al 2020). Landscape change to the Delta could damage Botswana’s tourism industry, which is critical for sustaining local livelihoods. Local industries reliant on the Delta, such as fishing and hunting, may also be at risk if the pipeline infrastructure is built (Ramberg 1997; Buenfil 2000).
Local and international concern for the Delta garnered strong support for Botswana's opposition to the abstraction pipeline project (Ashton 2000b).
Botswana also faces water scarcity issues, and slow economic growth within the nation highlights the insufficiency of its existing water resources. This means water has the potential to become a contentious issue in Botswana too, a country reliant on the actions of two upper riparian states. Their high stake in managing the Okavango River was highlighted by the intense reaction to Namibia’s proposal.
Figure 2: A photograph of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. (Source: National Geographic (N.D), https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/africa-expedition-conservation-okavango-delta-cuito).
Outcomes:
Improved runoff in the subsequent season meant the emergency pipeline was not required (Taylor and Buthene 1999), but if a pipeline is to be built in the future, it would necessitate a ratified agreement between Angola and Botswana (OKACOM 1994; Ashton 2000a).
The pipeline foregrounded the pitfalls of international agreements: political agreements are in place (OKACOM will be explored in my next blog post), but these agreements rely as much on political will as they do ratified agreements (Mbaiwa 2004). In this example, nature dissuaded Namibia’s political will, but as climate change pressure intensifies, the region will be an interesting backdrop to examine the relationship between water and politics.
Bibliography:
Ashton, P.J and R.E, Manley. (1999) ‘Potential hydrological implications of water abstraction from the Okavango River in Namibia’, Proceedings of the Ninth South African Hydrological Symposium, University of the Western Cape, Bellville.
Botswana Tourism Development Programme (BTDP). (1999) ‘Tourism Economic Impact Assessment’, Department of Tourism: Gaborone, Botswana.
Day, J.A. (1997) ‘The status of freshwater resources in Namibia’, Research Discussion Paper No. 22, Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Environment and Tourism: Windhoek, Namibia.
OKACOM. (1994) ‘Agreement Between the Governments of The Republic of Angola, The Republic of Botswana and The Republic of Namibia on the Establishment of a Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM)’, Signatory Document, Signed by Representatives of the Three Governments. Windhoek, Namibia, 15 September 1994.
Ramberg, L. (1997) ‘A pipeline from the Okavango River?’, Ambio, 26, 2, 129.
Scudder, T; R.E, Manley; R.W, Coley; R.K, Davis; et al. (1993). The IUCN (World Conservation Union) Review of the Southern Okavango Integrated Water Development Project, The IUCN Wetland Programme, Gland, Switzerland.
The blog has done a great job in emphasising the importance of hydro-politics within the proposed water pipeline development by Namibia. However, it would be nice if the blog added more information on OKACOM and how the pipeline would bypass this organisation
ReplyDeleteVery engaging blog post! Could you add some more information on the outcomes? perhaps in the next blog post you can give differing perspectives?
ReplyDelete